The Reign of Terror: Was it Justified

In 1792, French adversaries were pushing in on all borders and spies were rampant on the streets. To defend from internal enemies, prominent French leader Robespierre enacted the Reign of Terror. Anyone suspected of aiding the enemy was swiftly put on trial and executed. (doc. G) The Reign of Terror was not Justified because the threats to France externally and internally did not warrant the methods used. Those suspected of being spies or opposers of war during the French revolution were quickly tried and unjustly executed. Steven Otflnoski remarks in Triumph and Terror:The French Revolution â€Å"A careless word of criticism spoken against the government could put one in prison or worse. â€Å"(Doc E). Such executions were both morally unjust and a waste of human manpower during a time of war. Instead of causing people to follow the law, the reign of terror instigated several rebellions in France. (doc A). A letter from the National Convention in France remarks â€Å"We had reaso n to hope that these gatherings would cease as soon as the public troops arrived. Our hopes were misguided and this causes us the greatest of worries. † (doc. D).Had authorities established a sense of nationalist pride in French citizens, war would have been fought vigorously, there would be fewer rebellions, and thus, less loss of human life. In order to defeat two military powers on the front, France enacted a draft and started two wars which fueled more rebellion as people felt they were fghting for a country they didn't love. Document A details revolutions occurred after mandatory military drafts were instated. The French people had overthrown their king and gone to war for freedom, not to be ruled by a monarchy once more.Document B, a map of the war during 1972 shows France lost several decisive victories and lost cities and lives. The two wars coupled with the military draft caused citizens and soldiers alike to dislike the new republic as their comrades died to the guns and guillotines around them. The sharp blade of the guillotine was applied liberally to the necks of anyone suspected of working against France's interest. Document F shows the decapitation of Louis the XVI after extremely inconclusive evidence and faux claims painted him as an enemy spy and counter-revolutionary.Unfortunately, with the invention of the guillotine, Louis was Just one of tens of thousands killed in such a manner. Many such public execution were merely to invoke fear in the people's hearts. (doc D). Steven Otfinoski wrote in Triumph and Terror â€Å"The revolutionary Tribunal was established to try all crimes against the state. Tribunal members would not be elected by the people but rather by the national convention. † (Doc E). Not only trials brief and often merely formality, the small group of government leaders could convict anyone opposing them.Killing for power and fear didn't place pride in the oppressed French peoples' hearts a country on its knees. t o nly placed panic and despair, two detrimental qualities ot Although the reign of terror achieved the ends desired, it was not morally Justified due to the great losses of human life, the oppression of the French people, and the pointless violence that blossomed across europe as a result. It took three failed republics before France finally achieved a sustainable and loved government. In this case, Machiavelli would the ends Justify the means in the most inefficient manner.

A Plan to write an evaluation of the ways in which the European Enlightenment has influenced modern schooling

Introduction The plan includes an introduction, which will include an explanation of what European Enlightenment is and what transpired within this period, as well as the general objective of the brief, which is to evaluate the ways in which it influenced modern schooling. It will highlight the point that history and reason were the two significant characteristics of this period (e.g. Saenz 1999, p. 119; Lesaffer 2009, p. 446). The European Enlightenment and its influence on modern schooling The foregoing discussions involve the clarification of the concept of ‘modern schooling’ and an evaluation of how European Enlightenment influenced it. It will discuss the critical view of Enlightenment thinkers (e.g. Voltaire, Gibbon) on the irrationality of the past, alongside their often established incisive historical discontinuities for the sake of history and reason. False paradigms and privileges during the European Enlightenment violated the natural law and configured irrational social organisations (e.g. Saenz 1999). This is an important point in the evaluation. The evaluation will demonstrate the link between the prevalent constructs during the European Enlightenment (history and reason) and the characteristics of modern schooling. It will specifically point out that the methods and techniques of modern science could be utilised to explore and understand all areas of life (e.g. Romano 2010). Conclusion The conclusion will include a summary of important points/discussions/arguments, such as the idea of scientific method and commitment to reason that embody modern schooling. References to be used: Avrich, P. (2006) The Modern School Movement: Anarchism and Education in the United States. Oakland, CA: AK Press. Bartlett, R. C. (2001) The Idea of Enlightenment: A Postmodern Study. Toronto: University of Toronto Press Incorporated. Beales, D. (2005) Enlightenment and Reform in Eighteenth –Century Europe. I. B. Taurus & Co. Ltd. Feiner, S. (2004) The Jewish Enlightenment. Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press. Grell, P. and Cunningham, A. (2007) Medicine and Religion in Enlightenment Europe. England: Ashgate Publishing Limited. Grell, P. and Porter, R. (2000) Toleration in Enlightenment Europe. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Hille, T. (2011) Modern Schools: A Century of Design for Education. NJ: Wiley & Sons. Lesaffer, R. (2009) European Legal History: A Cultural and Political Perspective. New York: Cambridge University Press. Lindemann, M. (2010) Medicine and Society in Early Modern Europe. NY: Cambridge University Press. Melton, J. V. H. (2001) The Rise of the Public in Enlightenment Europe. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Pilbeam, P. (2012) Themes in Modern European History 1780-1830. New York: Routledge. Romano, M. J. (2010) AP European History. Second Edition. NJ: Wiley & Sons. Selwyn, N. (2011) Schools and Schooling in the Digital Age: A Critical Analysis. First Edition. Oxon: Routledge. Saenz. M. (1999) The Identity of Liberation in Latin American Thought. Maryland: Lexington Books. Zafirovski, M. (2011) The Enlightenment and its Effects on Modern Society. NY: Springer.

Disadvantages of science Essay

How Science and Technology Affects Human’s Life Science and technology are two things related to each other. Science is a systematic knowledge base, where a series of steps is followed in order to reliably predict the type of outcome. It is all about theories and focused on analysis. Science is the key by which man go anywhere at any time in the space. It has brought about several outstanding advantages to mankind. Technology, on the other hand, is more of an applied science. It is where tools and knowledge are used for the study of a particular science. It is all about process. What is life without science and technology? Nowadays, people can’t imagine their lives without technology. Anywhere they go and whatever they do, there are many things related to science. These are human’s inventions and innovations or various technologies surround them that provide their needs. Even in their daily activities or simple tasks, they are already using those technologies. Refrigerators, microwaves, televisions, cellular phones, laptops, digital cameras, cars, computers and lights are some technologies that human uses in their daily lives. These technologies really provide them many advantages. It is easy to think about the advantages however, for your information technology has also disadvantages. Science and Technology helps human beings make their lives easier in such a way that it helps them in every sector. Like in transportation, through cars, airplanes or trains, they can travel faster to their desired places. From inventions and innovations of great minds, robots and machines are made to help people make lesser mistakes. Because of technology, man can save his time, efforts and give him a quality to his works. Moreover, technology increases production. People can create multiple materials in a short period of time because of modern machines. Most of all, one of the most important advantages of technology is through the field of medical science or human health. Because of the inventions of technology for surgical operations and discoveries of many medicines, human’s life span will be lengthened and will save innocent lives. Science and Technology also changed human’s way of communicating. From telephones to cellular phones, then came the computers and Internets which gave them information. Through these, now they can do video conferences to their love ones at abroad or chatting their friends. Satellite communication is another important dimension of technology. Satellite TV s and satellite radios have eased the broadcasting of events across the globe. Computers can store, organize and manage huge amounts of data. They can process large amounts of information. Computers have given rise to the software industry, one of the most progressive industries of the world. Gadgets can give entertainment not only to teenagers but to everyone. In addition technology also gives assurance or for emergency use. On the other hand, with the advancement in the field of latest technology, people face many disadvantages out of the benefit of modern technology. It can harm our environment. New transportation technology causes pollution by the smoke or gas from factories and cars. Most people lost their job because companies took up automatic machines to improve their production with accuracy. Yet, the answers or discoveries that technology gave may not be always correct. These machines look inexpensive and its good to use but once there are technical problems occur in machines, it took much time to fix it and also it can be more expensive. There are also side effects of technology in our health. This can cause growth of eye disease, increase of body weight and can cause cancer because of radiation of specific technology. Science and Technology can cause people’s communication poor. According to Lauren Nelson, when communicating face to face, nonverbal behaviors provide context clues for the words we use. Unfortunately, the Wall Street Journal found that technologies like email, texting and instant messaging remove these important context clues, and can lead to misunderstandings. Sarcasm and jokes without nonverbal context cues can cause frustration. Though smiley faces with different expressions called â€Å"emoticons† are sometimes used to substitute traditional nonverbal cues, they fall far short of what face-to-face communication can provide. He also states that as more students buy cell phones, iPods, and gaming systems, technology’s impact on effective communication is becoming more pronounced. As the District Chronicles reports, teachers attempting to convey messages about lessons and textbooks find students are texting, playing, or listening to music. Not only does this mitigate the teacher’s ability to communicate lessons, but it hurts future communicative interaction between the teacher and student because of the lack of respect it conveys. The youth has also been very much addicted to gadgets that they get to spend too much time with it and creates their own world. Technology can make people lazy. Many people are already dependent and embrace this technology. Like students playing computer games instead of going to school or study. Technology also brings us privacy issues. From cell phone signal interceptions to email hacking, people are now worried about their once private information becoming public knowledge and making profit out of video scandals. Advanced technology has also created thousands of cases of cyber crimes, cheating and fraud. And most of all because of the new technology, the world may be facing terrorists threat and all of us are afraid of nuclear war. If people of the world use these inventions and innovations in a right way, we are all going to be benefited out of these but if the motive of a human being is not positive, surely they will face the technology’s disadvantages.

Fast Food Nation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Fast Food Nation - Essay Example According to the movie, Fast food Nation, it is clear that commodity fetishism is prevalent and has many ethical violations that need to be addressed. The need for disconnected narrative shows that in the production of every commodity, there are many independent processes involved in such a way that one party does not know what the other does. After the discovery of fecal matter in the meat, the vice president of Mickey hamburger goes to find out how meat processing is conducted in Uni-Globe meatpacking processing plant, but the management of the plant shows him the best environment and efficient procedure. This is clear that every party does not know what the other does and so disconnected narrative is used symbolically to show that in every process of production, there are independent processes involved in promoting consumer fetishism (Linklater). The difficulty involved in making the disconnected linkage in the movie is that all parties want to hide their shortcomings to avoid other parties to know what is really transpiring. The plant mistreats its workers, who perform poorly as a result of being demoralized. The plant does not want outside parties to understand its ills thus it tries to hide them. Disconnected narrative are symbolically used to show that production processes are interconnected but in reality each party does not what the other does and so it becomes difficult to detect malpractices when they emerge(Harvey 97) . By using disconnected narrative to show independent processes involved in production, most of which are unethical and illegal, the concept of commodity fetishism is well portrayed. The evils of commoditizing production can only be eradicated if consumer fetishism is

Amazon's Kindle Fire Old and New 4 P's Research Paper

Amazon's Kindle Fire Old and New 4 P's - Research Paper Example With growing urge for portability, it was important that a product that offers the quality of a complete computer in a portable way be introduced and the computer responded to this squarely. Still on the product, the company was tactical to include in its new feature, services that were absent in the ordinary computer or laptop (Institute of Development Studies, 2012). By this, consumers had something new to buy the Kindle Fire to expect. On the factor of placement or place, it would be said that the computer placed itself so strategic by taking total advantage of web 2.0 and new media that it was virtually impossible for any computer and for that matter internet user to be out of place in terms of accessibility to the product. This is because the product was launched directly onto the internet to make online purchases possible. There were therefore no limitations in terms of place or location. The computer also used the power of social media to promote its product as advertisement and publicity of the product was all over the social networks and other digital media (Mangalindan, 2012). This way, users of social media, who are said to be the highest users of the internet, were made to thirst for owning one of the product. Finally, the Kindle Fire came onto the market as the cheapest tablet PC and this was an important competitive advantage as the product was introduced just around the time the world economy was recov ering from global economic shocks and thus consumers preferred value for money in their buying (Ovide, 2012). As the years went by, competition became tougher on the tablet PC market and so it was just right and appropriate that Amazon respond squarely to keep its place on the market for the Kindle Fire. For this reason, a market strategy that was more focused on internal structures and systems rather than external systems was instituted. This internal strategy took its source from

Principles and Practices of Effective Leadership - D2- D8 Essay

Principles and Practices of Effective Leadership - D2- D8 - Essay Example This therefore means that this organization setting, the holistic process has been affected because the chain of communication between the various departments is broken down and ineffective. In brief there is no clear communication channel. To resolve this problem guided by the systems theory of organization, leaders can cultivate their emotional intelligence and behavior change that energizes and motivates the workers to change. This may include aspects such as developing better personal relationships between the workers by giving them collective tasks to perform as a general way of engaging and also participating holistically in the leadership of the organization (Bryman, 2011). References Bryman, A. (2011). The SAGE handbook of leadership. London: SAGE. Kouzes, J. M., & Posner, B. Z. (2007). The leadership challenge (4th Ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. How great leader performs and what they do when in leadership all depends on the ability to overcome obstacles through their behavior and response to the internal and external forces which are entirely dependent on their emotional capabilities. The fundamental factors pertaining to the power of emotional intelligence that defines the quality of a leader are grouped into categories which are self awareness, self management, social awareness, relationship management, conflict resolution and decision making skills (Goleman, et all, 2007). The core strengths of these categories are the aspects that are inward looking which are self awareness, self management, and conflict resolution. This is so because when a leader is able to communicate and manage him or herself appropriately from within, it means that the leader will respond to externalities effectively and appropriately. The externalities here are social awareness and relationship management, which constitute of organization, profession, country, city or the world in real life. The latter therefore becomes an emotional effective leader because from withi n himself or herself he/she uses the inward looking aspects within the outward looking aspects (externalities) in decision making and reasoning (Hughes et all,2005). It is true that through one’s lifetime he/she gets to encounter new experiences and challenges that contribute to mold one as an effective or ineffective leader. This makes it crucial for leaders to take a bold step towards understanding and learning the power of emotions, especially the inward looking aspect, in controlling their daily experiences as this is what directs their judgment and decision making. References Goleman, D., Boyatzis, R. E., & McKee, A. (2007). Cram101 textbook outlines to accompany: primal leadership : learning to lead with emotional intelligence, 1st ed.. Moorpark, Calif.: Academic Internet Publishers. Hughes, M. M., Patterson, L. B., & Terrell, J. B. (2005). Emotional intelligence in action: training and coaching activities for leaders and managers. San Francisco: Pfeiffer. Rewards are h onors or benefits given to workers for motivational purposes. They are grouped into extrinsic and intrinsic rewards. Extrinsic rewards are basically financial tangible rewards given to employees such as bonuses, pay rise and benefits. Intrinsic rewards on the other hand are the psychological rewards given to employees for performing a commendable job. The rewards can be positively used to make employees enthusiastic and appreciated, building

Understanding Workflow Design Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Understanding Workflow Design - Research Paper Example As a means to expound upon the process, this brief analysis will seek to three different concepts that were related in the workflow assessment of healthcare IT toolkit as well as seeking to summarize the article in question, â€Å"Developing a mentor program for our cardiovascular ICU†, and providing key ways that these techniques could be utilized within the given context. Firstly, with reference to the three techniques for workflow assessment, the ones that this student has selected for being the most pressing involve the following: determining system requirements, creating and maintaining checklists for work flow and completion, and discussion of systems operation with affected shareholders. With respect to the first and third steps, these act as a type of relay within which the director of change can help to categorize the process and make sure that it adequately addresses the needs of the component parts (Rose 127). All too often when change is initiated, regardless of context, it very often takes place at the very upper echelons of management with no forethought with regards to how that change will affect the individuals upon whom it relates. Secondly, with regards to implementing plans and change mechanisms, it is necessary to determine the overall system requirements and seeking to make the workflow match the given needs that are exemplified (R ouse 4). Lastly, writing down a checklist of goals and integrations helps to force the process to portray something that will take careful consideration of all facets that the workflow process will touch upon. As a means of implementing the aforementioned three components, the article that was reviewed, â€Å"Developing a Mentor Program for Our Cardiovascular ICU† helps to acquaint the reader with the needs of providing a paradigm shift in training for the cardiovascular ICU (Bredeger 112). In

A Life Journey of Mao Zedong Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

A Life Journey of Mao Zedong - Essay Example Mao was born when the Qing Dynasty was on the course of the breakdown of its powers over the ruling of China. For two hundred fifty years, Qing Dynasty ruled China with strictness. But they were in a quandary as to how to hold on to their authority. The rulers were in a difficulty over the peoples’ unrest. For over thirty years the Qing rulers had been trying to reorganize their land and naval forces and to equip them with modern Western weapons but Japan easily won in the war of 1894. (1) Foreign nations colonized the different parts of China. Powerful nations like Japan, France, Germany and Great Britain were interested in dominating China. Rebels tried to fight to regain Beijing in 1900, killing foreigners and Christian Chinese. This brought about more foreign invasions. Authorities in the other parts of China beheaded rioters and rebels. Qing Dynasty crushed down in October 1911 by the uprising of militant rebels. Though Spence briefly skimmed historical events during the early years of Mao’s life, significant dates, events, and persons were included. The book is a brief but close up portrait of Mao Zedong from his childhood years to the time when he ruled China. Spence combined history and storytelling on Mao’s climb to power. From a common villager without extraordinary talents to a learned man, Spence connected the series of events that led Mao to the peak of his rule. An interesting biography to read and understand this man with a great vision of China’s social and economic change.

Marketing Managemnt Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Marketing Managemnt - Assignment Example The focus in this paper is on marketing management that has gained increasing importance in recent years owing to the notion of globalization and internationalization which has given way to the boundary-less movement of goods and services. Marketing for products that are sold across various cultures, languages, tastes, demographics and external conditions is no longer a simplistic job- it requires adequate and periodic management so that the product achieves a strategic fit with the diverse external environment. No longer can marketers focus their efforts on just the four P’s (product, price, promotion, place)- they have come to realize the blooming significance of 4C’s; Consumer (as opposed to Product), Cost (as opposed to Price), Convenience ( as opposed to Place) and Communications ( as opposed to Promotion). Thus, the above indicates the growing importance of marketing management which enables managers and executives to deal with strategic marketing challenges that the organizations face every day. An important task for marketing managers is the creation of value for consumers. The challenge is thus, how to offer that value? The idea of customer relationship management (which is a part of marketing management) stems from the notion of value creation. At the heart of successful marketing efforts is the ability of the company to provide a product that satisfies the needs of customers. Towards this end it is important to define what a need is- a need is defined as a felt deprivation for something. So, for instance, to feel thirsty is a need that has to be satisfied. A want refers to the means by which that need is satisfied. Thus, how the thirst is quenched (through water, drink, and juice) would become a want. Marketers must target customer needs and satisfy wants. On the contrary, however, it is observed today that marketers are creating needs rather than satisfying them. To this end, the importance of product comes into play. The product is th e crux of marketing- Marketing is grounded in â€Å"consumers† and consumers demand products to satisfy their needs. The product is the starting point for most marketing efforts. It is interesting to note that a product consists of five layers although it may appear as a single, holistic object to us. The central part of the product is referred to as the â€Å"core†. It is this core that forms the basis for the other layers (including basic, expected, augmented and potential product). An example would be of a Nikon camera. Its core benefit would be to allow the user to take photographs and make videos with ease. The actual product will comprise of the brand name (Nikon), high resolution, carrying case etc. The augmented product would be warranty, demonstration and repair etc. Core benefits are often represented as order qualifiers or the bare minimum necessary for products to stay in the market (Homburg et al., 2005). This would simply mean the delivery for what is pro mised. A product or a brand is s promise, and when it is fulfilled in the quantity and quality desired by consumers the phenomenon is termed as core benefits or order qualifiers. For instance, the basic attribute of a bank is to offer accurate maintenance of consumer accounts. Bottled/mineral water provides consumer with a basic minimum level of ingredients or required calorie intake. Conceptual studies from research have revealed that core benefits are a subset of the larger group â€Å"customer benefits† which encompasses not only core benefits but also add-on benefits as discussed earlier. These customer benefits are viewed as the constructive values of customer relationship (Homburg et al., 2005). The core of a product is not tangible- it takes the form of a benefit or an advantage that a consumer may have from using it (Homburg et al., 2005). Thus, the core of a product is in abstract form and cannot be touched. Alternately, core defines the need that marketers

Different Concepts Of Crime. Classification Of Crime Essay

Different Concepts Of Crime. Classification Of Crime - Essay Example This implies that no harm was caused, and no damage was created to a person, the society or the state. Oxford dictionaries define crime as an act or omission that constitutes and offence which is punishable by law. A crime is a wrong committed against an individual, society and the state as defined in law and carries a punishment of fines, incarceration and, in some instances death. The numerous definitions of crime by different people and different entities, states, and scholars make the concept of crime to be among the hardest things questions. There are endless types of conduct that are prohibited and which may somehow be the subject of formal punishment. The kind of punishment may also change among diverse types of crimes, which creates room for disagreement over whether certain behavior should be prohibited by the criminal rule, and so punished at all. Equally, there may be conduct that people deem think should be criminal but which left untouched by the criminal law. Further, t he status of crime and criminology is undoubtedly informed by the methods and insights of social sciences, and these insights continue to have a fragile position within the legal scholarship. A close relationship between legal constructions of crime (criminal law) and social constructions of crime and criminality (criminology and criminal justice) arise (Lacey, nd). Certain kinds of conduct are acknowledged as crimes by the criminal law and the wider body of ordinary people. Examples of such acts are such as murder, stealing, damaging property and raping. These acts may be described as injurious to the victim as the injury may have been caused directly or indirectly. Moving a note higher, the concept of crime extends not only to causing injury and harm to incorporate only the perceived potential for harm. For instance, speeding may not look like real crime, but speeding may result in injury and death. The prospective danger of the person speeding is greater than that of the trivial pickpocket, but few people doubt that a pickpocket is a criminal, unless there are persuasive avoiding factors (Abadinsky, 2010). Classification of crime There are several types of crimes committed by individuals, some of which are taken as serious and some like trespass is considered less serious. Though all acts of crime are considered as the contravention of law, there are different punishments that may be enforced on a criminal. Classification of crime may be based on diverse standards like the extent of punishment, by type, by common law, and mode of trial. States might vary as to the categorization of any particular misdeed. Offense perpetrated in a certain region may be categorized differently than where the same crime was committed in another place. This study will explore classification of crime depending on the types of crimes. These are the organized crime, white collar crime, crimes of theft, property crimes, corporate crimes, as well as other property crimes. Generally, crimes may be classified in two main categories; felony and misdemeanor, depending on the severity of a crime. Felony is taken as grave crimes, which carry a punishment of more than one year in prison such as murder, arson and kidnapping. Misdemeanor misdeed is less severe and carries a punishment of less than one year in prison (Abadinsky, 2010). These are such as trespassing, prostitution and public intoxication. White collar crimes Sutherland of the American sociological society (2010) defines white collar crime as crime perpetrated by an individual of decorum and high societal standing in the

E-Logistics and International supply Chain Management Essay

E-Logistics and International supply Chain Management - Essay Example The international supply chain is a medium which initiates the global trade. The information technology relies heavily on the use of internet. Integrating the technological advancements will lead to the development of e-logistics (Stank, Keller, & Daugherty, 2001). The activities which describe the key logistic functions includes the following The chart shown above explains that logistics deals with the order processing, inventory management, transportation, facilitation networks and warehousing which includes material handling and packaging. The management of all the components and elements for supporting logistics and supply chain function is essential for smooth running of the system (Flint et al., 2005). The details of the elements are shown below. The logistic management is the connection between the suppliers and customers. This includes management of raw materials, in-process inventory and management of the finished goods. The management is responsible for planning, implementing and controlling which include customer satisfaction, demand forecasting, inventory management, procurement, packaging and warehousing etc. The inputs into the logistics include natural resources, human resources, financial resources and information resources (Flint et al., 2005). The outputs of logistics include the competitive advantage, time utility, efficient supply or movement to the customers and inclusion of the proprietary assets. The overall goals associated with logistics management are ensuring that the customers are satisfied and cost can be minimized. Managing the quantities, goods, places, time, condition and cost are the features why logistics is managed (Fugate, Mentzer, and Stank, 2010). Information flow within the system is the tool which makes it dynamic. This requires that the information, communication, cooperation and trust of the individuals are synchronized. With the application of the internet and

The major ocean surface current patterns Essay Example for Free

The major ocean surface current patterns Essay An ocean surface current is a constantly directed and continuous movement or flow of ocean water. Major ocean surface current patterns are powered by the wind. However, these patterns are also largely influenced by other factors such as the Corolis effect, which is the deflection of the water to the direction of the wind, the differences in heating across the globe, and the structure of the landmasses. These three factors result in more permanent and large scale water movements that become the major ocean surface current patterns around the world. Generally, each of ocean hemispheres has its own gyre, which is the term for the circular movement of water. In the northern hemisphere, gyres move clockwise while in the southern hemisphere move counterclockwise. Examples of major ocean surface patterns around the world include Equatorial Counter Current, Kuroshio Current, North and South Equatorial Current, the Gulf Stream, and the North Atlantic Drift, among many others. 2. Compare and contrast: swells, breaking surf, and tides. Include water depth, wavelength, speed, and causes of each. A swell in the ocean basically refers to the development of ocean surface waves that are of long wavelength on the sea. They have more stable directions compared to other oceanic waves because they are mainly caused by steady wind systems and tropical storms. On the other hand, certain waves go through a phenomenon termed as â€Å"breaking. † These waves, also called â€Å"break surfs,† have bases that can longer support their upper part or top, which causes it to collapse. These usually happen when the wave runs through shallow water or when two waves run against each other. Its speed and depth depends on the size of the entire wave and its wavelength depends on how the wave was formed. Finally, a tsunami is a chain of waves that are created when a large body of water, like an ocean, is swiftly displaced. In a deep ocean, a tsunami usually has a wavelength of 120 miles or 200 kilometers. When a tsunami starts to form it is usually deep and travels fast, but as it approaches the coast or the land, it becomes shallow and it speed slows down to 50 mph or 80 kilometers per hour. The causes of a tsunami may include an earthquake, volcanic eruptions, massive underwater movements, and large asteroids hitting the sea or ocean, among others. 3. Discuss how tides in a bay depend on its location in the ocean. Since tides are largely dependent on the gravitational pull of the sun and the moon, its movement, occurrence, and size are influenced by its location in the ocean. Usually, when the moon and the sun are aligned with each other facing the Earth, the tides are either significantly high or low. On the other hand, when the two are not aligned, the tides are not as significantly high or low. In terms of location, when a coastline or a bay is located approximately between the moon and the sun, its tides could either be very high or very low. However, since the pull of gravity is stronger in the bodies of water that are far from land, there are more tides in bays that are located farther from the coastline. In short, when a bay is farther out in the ocean, the more tides there will be and vice versa. 4. Compare and contrast depositional and erosional coasts in terms of surface features, plate tectonic settings, and active processes. Two types of coasts that significantly differ from each other are depositional coasts and erosional coasts. Depositional coasts mainly have a lot of barrier islands, segments, and deltas. Their beaches are also well-developed as compared to the erosional coasts. One of its most prominent active processes is the longshore drift, which is a zigzag wave movement that causes the movement of sands and picks up sediments. One example of this type of coast is the Gulf Coast. On the other hand, erosional coasts have irregular and steep bays and headlands that create sea arches, sea tracks, and sea caves but lack well-developed beaches except for certain protected areas. It’s most active process is erosion as its particles such as rocks, soils, and sediments are displaced by wind and water movement. Possibly the best examples of this type of coast are the United States west coast and the Australian Coastline. 5. Discuss the differences in capabilities necessary for survival of marine organisms (larger than plankton) in the pelagic zone versus the benthic zone. There are several differences in the necessary survival capabilities of marine organisms between the pelagic zone and the benthic zone. The pelagic zone is any level or any part of the sea not near the bottom. On the other hand, the benthic zone is lowest region or area of an ocean, sear, or lake. Basic the main difference between the capabilities of the organism that live in the two zones include their tolerance of pressure and temperature and oxygen and nutrient requirement, among others. Since the pelagic zone covers areas that are not near the bottom, there are a lot of organisms that can survive in it. There marine organisms are usually ones that cannot tolerate too much pressure and need adequate oxygen and nutrients, which are abundant in this region as compared to the benthic zone. Examples of these organisms include the billfish, tunas, and dorado, among others. On the other hand, those that can survive in the benthic zone are organisms that have a high tolerance for pressure and do not require abundant oxygen and nutrient supply, which are significantly lower in the region. Certain examples of these marine organisms in the benthic zone, which are also called â€Å"benthos† include starfish, clams, sea anemones, and oysters, among others.

Learning organisation as a realistic model

Learning organisation as a realistic model The learning and functioning in workplace carries a foremost responsibility to establish a constant learning for the organization. Learning organisation is one of the most significant forms of organisation used in present to shape the future for the success (Belasen 2000). In this type of organisation, learning is a base which assists in the development of most effective career plans and individual skills towards the path selected. In present, most of the organisations are trying to convert themselves in a learning organisation so that it can attain significant benefits related to learning organisation (Coffield 1998). Here, in this report the concept of learning organisation is discussed so that it can be identified that is the learning organization a useful or realistic model at the workplace. It is done in reference to a learning organisation that is IBM. Learning Organisation Learning Organization refers to an organisation in which employees at all levels, separately and conjointly, are incessantly growing their capability to bring forth results they truly care about (Nagwekar n.d.). It is not just the most appealing or existing management trend but it can also furnish organisations with work environment that open and flexible to innovative ideas. It also involves the concepts that provide solutions to continuous work-related troubles that are available among all its employees (Svensson, Randle Bennich 2009). It assists individuals with an ability to strengthen their knowledge base, which gives them with an ability to think significantly and ingeniously. Additionally, it also facilitates workplace individuals with an ability to communicate thoughts and conceptions, and the talent to collaborate with other individuals throughout the procedure of interrogation and action (Belasen 2000). A learning organisation try to create its own future by assuming that learning is a continuous and inventive procedure for its people (Rainbird, Fuller Munro 2004). The learning workplace directs individuals towards a development, adaptation and transformation of themselves in reaction to needs of organisation and as well as customers. It allows employees to work freely so that they can learn and express their ideas and problems and in turn can contribute towards the development of an improved work place (Nagwekar n.d.). This environment also assists individuals in shifting from the conventional authoritarian workplace philosophy to one in which the organisational hierarchy is broken down, and human potency is acclaimed (Coffield 1998). This type of working environment foster a culture in which individuals believe in creating results that they actually want and where they can learn that how they all can learn together for the advancement of all inclusive organisation. This type of organisation furnishes people with reaction to the competencies that is essential for every individual to attain success in its own field (Gould Baldwin 2004). The learning can be increased with the help of different learning approaches like training, rotational experiences, coaching, work-related education, electronic-system learning, and with the help of several other learning-oriented interventions (Lassey 1998). Today most of the organisations are trying to attain benefits of learning organisation as they feel that it is a realistic model but it is not the situation as it is much useful rather realistic (Nagwekar n.d.). An organisation become learning organisation with its own efforts and practices that if not undertaken accurately will not direct towards the creation of a learning organisation. In this type of organisation it is essential to make use of appropriate training programs that may vary according to the needs of specific organisation and its individuals (Belasen 2000). All aspects related to becoming a learning organisation need to be undertaken carefully as otherwise it would not be possible for a firm to use it for its own benefit. If it used effectively can assist a firm with several advantages and abilities to deal with existing challenges related to business, management of internal environment, employees commitment towards learning and working in the direction of organisational goals (Pun Balkissoon 2011). Throughout studies and evaluations, it is identified that there are some disciplines which must be mastered by an organisation if it wants to introduce a useful learning organisation that are as follows: Systems Thinking For becoming a learning organisation, it is essential that the firm develops and ability to envision the big picture and to make out patterns rather than conceptualizing change as obscure events (Belasen 2000). Additionally, there is also a need to think by interconnecting to the whole so that it can become easy to identify that how it operates and what actions can create troubles. Personal Mastery It commences by becoming devoted to lifetime learning and it is the key element of a learning organization (Nagwekar n.d.). Building Shared Visions For creating a learning organisation organisations need to develop a genuine or shared vision that evokes commitment in good and as well as in bad situations and has the potential to unite an organization. Mental Models Managing mental models is also vital as they can obstruct new and prevailing penetrations and organizational practices from being carried out. Until or unless there is no realization and a concentration to openness it is not possible to implement real change. Team Learning It is also critical as almost all modern organisations in present are operating on the basis of team work. It means that if a firms team members do not come together and learn it cannot become a learning organisation (Nagwekar n.d.). The concept of learning organisation is quite useful as it does not only allow firms senior managers to do all thinking but it also appropriates all individuals at all levels to think in regard to the entire organisation. It facilitates all employees to make use of their inner potential with a hope that they can also build something distinctive or unique for their firm. Benefits of Learning Organisation How learning organisation is useful at the work place can be understood with the help of discussion of its benefits to a firm. The benefits of learning organisation started appearing with the realization of its importance. It is helpful for dealing with different types of challenges that are as follows: Rapid Change: In present competitive environment change is occurring rapidly in all workplaces that in turn forces agencies to quickly adapt work procedures. Development of a learning organisation furnishes organisations with an opportunity to learn through adapting change and other pertinent issues (Belasen 2000). Eroding Knowledge Bases: The current attrition of Federal employees, awaited retirements decreases-in-force are inducing on-going damage to the organizational knowledge bases. This can be resolved with the help of a learning organisation that assist in furthering information exchange and tap expertise from all level employees (Murphy Willmott 2010). As well, it also makes use of technology to support and strengthen information exchange that in turn assists in resolving employees queries and issues. Shifting Focus: Focus of federal agencies is altering from a duty of ensuring compliance to serving customers effectively that also creates different challenges. The creation of a learning organisation will ensure a strategic alignment between customers needs preferences, individual learning, organisational aims, and resource distributions (Coffield 1998). Attainment of strategic alliance is very important as without this it is not possible for a firm to attain its aims and it can be done effectively with the help of development of a learning organisation. Limited Training Resources: The companies overall training budgets are decreasing day-by-day whereas employees also have less time to attend formal training sessions. This affects their growth and as well as company growth. With the help of a learning organisation at workplace, a company can make use of different alternative strategies that may easily incorporate learning into the workplace (Gould Baldwin 2004). These alternative methods are low in cost and are much more effective to furnish a company with all essential training needs of its employees. Evolving Roles of Supervisors: With the increasing diversity in organisations supervisors roles are evolving with an increasing responsibility. Now, supervisors are not only accountable for playing traditional human resource functions as they are also responsible for managing each and every aspect of business and its employees (Belasen 2000). With the development of learning organisation supervisors roles has become much more easy as in this they work as teachers and each employees is empowered to be accountable for their own learning. Management of all the above discussed challenges can be done effectively with the help of a learning organisation. The benefits of learning organisation evidenced that how it is useful in a workplace in regard to management of different aspects and as well as employees continuous learning (Wang Ahmed 2003). Learning Organisation as a Useful Model at Workplace Learning organisation is quite useful model at workplace as it allows a firm with several advantages related to attaining superior performance, improvement in quality, concentrating on customers, for attaining competitive advantage, to manage change, develop committed workforce, and for recognizing assured success and growth (Serra 2009). How a learning organisation work as a useful model at workplace can be understood with the discussion of IBM that makes significant use of learning for attaining above discussed advantages. At IBM, learning is a strategic facilitator of change. It works as an essential tool that helps it in affirming its new go-aheads, re-skills its manpower and appropriates it to handle key market changes and organizational alterations. Its use of learning helps it in developing a learning organisation that in turn works as a useful model at its workplace. IBMs commitment towards learning can be evidenced by its US$750 million annual spending for different learning initiatives (IBMs learning transformation story 2004). This annual spending of IBM is done with a belief that learning organisation enhances its productivity, endows employees and teams to innovate, empowers development of employee potential, and expands organizational knowledge to providers, co-operators and customers. In addition to developing a learning organisation, IBM has also adopted a repetitive procedure of learning transformation that helped it in attaining a leadership in learning. The continuous learning and leadership in organisational learning has enabled IBM to win and continuously grow in present competitive environment. The company success as a learning organisation can also be understood with its efforts towards enhancing learning. IBM operates with a belief of learning anywhere, anytime and on demand. Employees of IBM spend an approximate 17 million hours each year (around 55 hours per employee) in different formal training programs that may be conducted online or in a traditional classroom (IBMs learning transformation story 2004). Previously learning was given through traditional classrooms but now it is mostly conducted online (Belasen 2000). Another substantial belief that helped IBM is its link up of learning with employee retention. Its appropriate learning to its employees assist it in retaining its employees that is most significant issue in present competitive era (Furnham 2005). The continuous learning also assist the company in saving significant costs related to new employees training costs. Being a learning organisation, IBM respects the role that learning plays in attaining organisational effectiveness (IBMs learning transformation story 2004). All efforts of IBM towards becoming a learning organisation or using it as a useful model assist it with several advantages related to organisation, people, technology and knowledge that are as follows: Organization: By making use of leadership organisation as a useful model at its workplace, IBM has become able to attain organisational effectiveness. The company learning strategy facilitates it in attaining its vision. It has also helped the company in developing a leadership that is devoted to the significance of learning and believes in distinctly communicating learning that is essential for organisational success (Serra 2009). Development of appropriate leadership assists employees in identifying the needs, intends and chances for learning. Implying a learning organisation at workplace also helps IBM leaders in creating and maintaining a supportive learning culture for their team members that in turn motivates them towards working at their utmost potential. Continuous learning also helps IBM in making use of effective communication systems that alleviate the lateral information transfer and facts throughout all levels of organisation (Furnham 2005). The continuous learning arouses creativity and brings forth new penetrations and innovative practices at IBM. People: Being a learning organisation, IBM has become able to hire people who are significantly interested in their work and vigorously replicate on their experience. The intense learning had allowed its employees to make use of their understanding and take different initiatives to contribute towards knowledge management (Serra 2009). The different online and traditional learning programs have facilitated IBM with the development of employees as reflective practitioners. By working in a learning organisation all employees of IBM become able to grow their strengths and maximize their learning by getting involved into different learning programs. It also assists the company in creating an environment in which everyone work with cooperation and collaboration so that everyones learning towards working in a much more effective way can be enhanced (Chich-Jen 2011). Knowledge: Another substantial field in which it is beneficial to make use of learning is knowledge. For every learning organisation it is a critical asset as learning is the product of knowledge and its origin (Caldwell 2006). Development of a learning organisation enables an organisation to understand that how it can attain knowledge. Establishing learning organisation at workplace enables knowledge creation through individual to collective approach (Serra 2009). IBM being a learning organisation provides substantial opportunities for company knowledge to be developed and shared with others through social contact and approach to documentation. IBM employees are aware that how they can put specific knowledge in all essential systems for knowledge management (IBMs learning transformation story 2004). All these information and knowledge is not possible if a firm is not a learning organisation. Technology: Another substantial field supported by learning is a firms technology. When a firm, become learning organisation it become able to harness the significance of advanced information and communication technologies. Without having knowledge and empowerment in these technologies it is not possible for a firm to attain its objectives related to knowledge management and learning (Serra 2009). IBM as a learning organisation makes an effective use of information and communication technologies that in turn assist in strengthening its organizational identity, establishing and maintaining learning communities, keep everyone informed and aware of all essential corporate evolutions (Chich-Jen 2011). Additionally, continuous learning at workplace also helps IBM in creating unbelievable and associative linkups between people that in turn furnish access to their creative knowledge and thoughts. It also encourages innovation and originality by sharing and developing a practice of learning from others effective practices (Serra 2009). IBM being a learning organisation provides different opportunities to its employees to learn that how they can make an effective use of advanced information and communication technologies to enhance their knowledge and leaning (IBMs learning transformation story 2004). All the above discussed fields evidence that how IBM is able to use learning at its workplace by continuously investing in learning. The role of learning in IBM can be understood with its importance from last 90 years. From last 90 years, learning is playing a substantial role in driving IBM towards success (IBMs learning transformation story 2004). On the basis of its unified and lined up approach, IBM has furthered and are constantly maintaining effective learning programs for its employees, professional and administrator development. In the year 1915, after four years of IBM incorporation, it established a distinct IBM education department for training and developing all of its employees. Subsequently it was used formally on all its product lines so that employees can be instructed regularly and works effectively by increasing their learning towards their roles and company products and services (John 2002). Afterwards it offered a formal customer education following an IBM Management Development Program. For making employees more effective towards reacting customer requests and queries, the company started an IBM Customer Education Program that shows the company dedication to become a learning organisation (IBMs learning transformation story 2004). All these company management initiatives towards increasing employees learning significantly assist it in developing employees that are highly dedicated towards organisational goals and making innovations with the help of their creative thoughts and maximized sharing (OKeeffe 2002). The learning commenced in its beginning has now enabled company and its employees to operate by considering its future. IBMs focus on learning organisation was significantly useful for it as it assisted it in transforming itself from a hardware company to a recognized service-driven company. This change at company necessitated reorganization and re-skilling of its employees that became easy with the help of continuous learning (Aktharsha Anisa 2011). With learning, it became easy for IBM to align its employees in accordance to its new business models as its employees were dedicated and was ready to change their approach so that business opportunities available to company can be optimized. Throughout their past efforts, IBM has become able to develop dedicated employees and now it has been concentrating on the development of core-competencies and job-related abilities and skills. For improving its employees job-related competencies, the company learning programs target five strategic aspects that are sales, employee development, leadership and management, IT training and training to support business partnerships (IBMs learning transformation story 2004). For developing effective learning programs, the company also employed a learning governance model that helped IBM in setting its learning priorities. The company learning governance model is structured in a way that assures maximum effectiveness of IBMs learning investment. IBMs learning governance model is structured to ensure maximum effectiveness for our learning investment. For developing a learning organisation at workplace IBM governance complies with different aspects like every learning intervention should be integrated and implemented in regard to IBM strategy (Dierkes, Antal, Child Nonaka 2003). Additionally, its focus was on implementing a disciplined approach to enterprise wide learning so that more and more benefits related to organisation, people, technology and knowledge can be attained (IBMs learning transformation story 2004). All these company initiatives towards becoming a learning organisation significantly helped it in attaining all business related objectives. The company success is due to its integrated learning approach. The company management operates with a belief that individual learn in different patterns and on this belief IBM tried to use different educational approaches for increasing its employees learning. The integrated learning approach includes interactive, web-based, collaborative and face-to-face learning (Aktharsha Anisa 2011). Among these the most appropriate method suited to a group can be selected according to their own skills and requirements. Another effort in this direction done by IBM is the development of the IBM Learning Investment Council. For increasing learning at IBM, first of all the employees performance reports and other available reference materials are used that are usually web-based. This appropriates online transfer of information and also provides an access to individual to the material that is pertinent to their job and needs (IBMs learning transformation story 2004). It allows employees to learn at their own pace that in turn create interest among them and motivates them to learn according to their own suitability and abilities (John 2002). In addition to this, learning is also created from interaction, simulation or games that motivated individuals to contribute on real-life situations and endows them with an ability to practice specific competencies at their own speed (OKeeffe 2002). Another significant approach used at IBM for increasing learning is collaborative learning and class-room learning. The approach of IBM towards learning from its initiatives has significantly assisted in it transforming its history that was not possible without its timely learning initiatives (Dierkes, Antal, Child Nonaka 2003). From beginning, the company management was aware with the usefulness of organisational learning at workplace and this is the reason they tried to implement it by undertaking different efforts. The company motivated all its employees to focus on continuous learning so that their skills and abilities can be strengthened (Curado 2006). It was done with a realisation of learnings importance and its usefulness for a firm in the direction of attaining all its pre-determined business goals. With the realization of learnings importance IBM tried to integrate it with its business strategies so that all its efforts can be directed with continuous learning that in turn can provide its employees with an advantage to increase their abilities and skills from time-to-time or according to changes in market and customer needs. Conclusion With the help of above discussion of learning organisation, its benefits and use of learning by IBM it can be said that learning is a useful model for an organisation. Without learning it is not possible for a firm to develop its employees with all essential job-related competencies. Organisation learning at workplace encourages employees to strengthen their skills that in turn direct them towards performing their duties in a much more effective manner (OKeeffe 2002). The success of IBM demonstrates how important and useful organisational learning is at workplace if implemented appropriately. IBM learning initiatives evidences its importance and how it assisted it in transforming its image (Rae 2008). In present competitive environment organisational learning is highly useful as it assist organisations with an ability to develop its employees competencies and skills in accordance to their own requirements related to attaining business aims and objectives.

Exercise For College Students Essay -- Argumentative Persuasive Papers

Exercise For College Students College life is a time full of fun, friends, activities, classes, and homework. All of these activities however, add up to a busy life style. Being busy is not in itself harmful but when the busyness becomes so great that it turns into stress, problems start to arise. The formation of stress leads to many unhealthy trends, such as lack of sleep, loss of immunity to disease, and a change in personality traits. How then can stress in the busy lives of college students be reduced? The answer is a simple one that has long been known; exercise relieves stress. Colleges across the country need to implement a program of required exercise classes to promote the well being of students. In this paper I am going to use classical argument to support my claim of value, that classes involving exercise should be made a part of university requirements throughout the United States and specifically at Iowa State. I will do this by first stating a concession to those who do not believe exercise classes should be a part of the curriculum. Next, I will include a refutation section where my claims are supported against the opposing claims. Then, I will include the presentation of why universities need to require exercise classes. Last, I will conclude my paper by giving the solution to the problem of lack of exercise. One of the arguments against installing a program of required exercise classes is that in order to get the full health benefit from the program some of the responsibility would have to depend on the student and their attitudes. Universities cannot force students to lead healthy lives. This is a true statement because not all students would take full advantage o... ... Washington D.C.: American Association of Retired Persons, 1986. Davis, Elwood and George Holland. Values of Physical Activity. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown Company Publishers, 1975. Davis, Howard. Sate Requirements in Physical Education For Teachers and Students. Alabama: Tuskegee Institute, 1973. Dishman, Rod. Exercise Adherence. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers, 1988. Montoye, Henry. Physical Activity and Health: An Epidemiological Study of an Entire Community. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1975. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Physical Activity and Health: A Report of the Surgeon General. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, 1996.

Supernatural in Shakespeare’s The Tempest And Marlowe’s The Tragical Hi

The Supernatural in Shakespeare’s The Tempest And Marlowe’s The Tragical History of D. Faustus The supernatural forces are at once alike and distinct in Shakespeare’s The Tempest and in Marlowe’s The Tragical History of D. Faustus. The supernatural is kind to Prospero and his daughter Miranda in The Tempest, while the devils in Dr Faustus eagerly wait for the day that Faustus would join them in Hell. In both plays, the supernatural provides recurrent waves of sounds and feelings, lending special atmospheric qualities to The Tempest and Dr Faustus. The supernatural serves as a reminder of the hierarchies that exist in both plays, and it also illuminates the human heart, revealing the characters’ thoughts and wishes. Often appearing visible to all, the supernatural forces in The Tempest and Dr Faustus sustain the plays by providing a distinct atmospheric backbone, by reminding the characters of the existing hierarchies, and by revealing the characters’ inner hearts. Soaked in the supernatural, Shakespeare’s The Tempest possesses an impenetrable veil of eeriness. It opens with the tempestuous roaring of thunder and lightning, setting the stage for panic and confusion amongst the mariners. The mariners scatter and hide, while Ferdinand’s hair stands on end. This wild and surreal atmosphere prepares the characters and the audience for future encounters with supernatural beings. When the spirit Ariel wakes Gonzalo and the others, Gonzalo says, â€Å"’Tis best we stand upon our guard, or that we quit this place. Let’s draw our weapons† (II.i.317-318). The mortals are on guard against the supernatural, and this suspenseful atmosphere often returns when Ariel and the other spirits approach these unknowing men. When Prospero remembers ... ...ory of D. Faustus are about the relationship of the two worlds. By creating an eerie and sometimes humourous atmosphere, the supernatural gives the plays points of interest. The existing hierarchies between mortal and immortal are not to be destroyed, and the supernatural beings in these two plays reinforce the rules. By revealing the characters’ hearts and minds, the supernatural drive the plot as well as the actions of the individual characters, so that without these beings, these two plays would grind to a standstill. WORKS CITED Marlowe, Christopher. The Tragical History of D. Faustus. In Renaissance Drama: An Anthology of Plays and Entertainments. Edited by A.F. Kinney. Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers Ltd., 2002. Shakespeare, William. The Tempest. The Norton Shakespeare. Ed. Greenblatt, Stephen. New York: W.W. Norton & Co. Inc., 1997. 3055-3107.

Essay --

Many students believe that a historian’s job is only to understand the past; likewise they believe that a human scientist’s job is solely to change the future. However, as a â€Å"knower†, I now comprehend that there is much more to these jobs than meets the eyes. I believe that these job â€Å"definitions† only describe the mere superficial part of the job, that there is a lot more to being a historian or a human scientist then just one simple task. However with these job â€Å"definitions†, that society has given, are many complex questions on how we accumulate knowledge on certain issues, these questions are known as knowledge issues. Some of the knowledge issues included in the job â€Å"definitions† are: Could history be seen as a cycle? To what extent can a historian â€Å"understand† the past? Do human scientists invent new ideas and theories or do they reinforce past paradigms? In what ways do the human sciences contribute to the future? In order to answer these questions I have decided to examine historians and human scientists in terms of how they engage the past and the future. There are many people who claim they have the â€Å"true† history; these types of people are known as historians. In this case my definition of historian is: an expert in the study of history, especially in that of a particular period, region, or social phenomenon. There are many different kinds of historians ranging from economics to environmental, and even to, urban. However in history, which we want to focus on, we have orthodox, revisionist, post-revisionist and many more. One may ask himself why there are so many different historians if there was but only ONE true accurate history. This is because history is full of â€Å"gaps† which the historians TRY to fill with their ow... ...ut does not give an explanation. On the other hand I define law as a concept that shows the direction of movement of a variable and gives a reliable explanation for the movement. Additionally human scientist may confuse a correlation with a casual connection. The transcendentalist poet Wystan Hugh Auden once said, â€Å"There is more than meets the eye.† These idea of concepts being more complex then they seem surround the jobs of historians and human scientists. The historian doesn’t simply understand the past for knowledge but also for the benefit that comes from it, such as to better understand the present and supply guidance for the future: â€Å"In history lie all the secrets of statecraft†. Likewise, human scientist attempt to explain and understand trends of human behavior; however, this is only achieved by examining the past the gain a comprehension on the subject.

Midterm Exam 9th Grade Palestine

U. N. R. W. A Date: 8th Nov. 2012 Department of Education Time: Name:†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Midterm English language test Grade: 9th Reading Around the world, people also found natural ways to shelter from the weather. In cold regions, traditional houses were often low with thick walls and small windows that faced away from the direction of storms. In the hot rainforests of South-East Asia, people built their homes above the ground and high on hills to catch every cool wind. In the hot, dry Middle East, traditional courtyard houses did something similar.Their thick, white walls reflected the sun’s heat and kept everything inside cool. The height of these walls also provided cool shade in the courtyard all day. During the last 100 years, most people have stopped living in traditional houses with their old ways of protecting against the weather. Now, we heat and cool our modern brick and concrete houses and apartments with electricity, oil and g as. Read and answer the following questions 1. What has changed during the last 100 years? †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 2. How are homes built in the middle east? †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 3. What are the materials used in building modern houses? †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 4. From the text find the opposite of: Cold: †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. Modern: †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â ‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ ]1[ Low: †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 5. The underlined pronoun their line 7 refers to †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 6. T or F 1) Traditional houses in cold places were often built with high and thick walls. ( ) 2) White walls does not reflect the sun's heat. ( ) Vocabulary Complete the following sentences using words from the list Shade Excuse me mud port whole hurry bookcase remember forget in time ) Sandy: I must †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ to take my guidebook. Muna: And don't †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ to take your Turkish phrase book. 2) The old man sat in the †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ of the wall. 3) The Masai people used †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. in building their houses. 4) We should †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. because we are late. 5) He got to the meeting just †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 6) Constantinople is a ver y important †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. for Turkey. 7) Sara cleaned the †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ house yesterday. 8) †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦, can you take a photograph of me and my friend? 9) I'm going to buy a new †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ next week. Grammar I. Complete the sentences with correct forms of the verbs between brackets 1- Arabs †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.Spain 500 years ago. (occupy) 2- Salim usually †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦(put) on black shoes but now she (wear)†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ white trainers. 3- Water †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. of hydrogen and oxygen. (consist) ]2[ 4- I †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. a new car three days ago. (buy) 5- She †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ that movie. (already, see) 6- We †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. two tests so far this semester. (have) 7- Lamis used to †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. a lot when she was young. (cry) II. Choose the correct answer 1- I'm going to buy ( a – an – the ) umbrella. 2- Lamis used to ( cry – cries – cried ) a lot when she was young. 3- Suha still ( hasn’t – has – have ) cleaned the room. Listening a) Listen and answer – Where is the flight taking off to? †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 2- How many hours is the flight? †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 3- what is the flight number? †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. b) T o r F 1- The plan will fly at a height of 7839 meters. () 2- The local time in Seattle is 11:45. () c) A word that means commander †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Speaking Complete the following dialogue London For five days 11 I would like fish suitcase smaller Officer: Passport and ticket, please. Sam: Here is my passport, and my ticket. Officer: Where are you heading today? Sam: I am going to †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. for a conference. Officer: How long will you be staying?Sam: †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. ]3[ gate B Officer: Thank you. How many bags are you bringing today, sir? Sam: I want to check the large †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. , and I want to carry the †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦one on with me. Officer: What do you want for your meal? Chicken or fish? Sam: †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦, please. Officer: Good. Your seat is reserved. You can go to †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Officer: Thank you. Goodbye. Writing Number the sentences in the correct order and write as a paragraph ___ From here, turn south and walk to the famous Blue Mosque. ___ Inside, be sure to look at the wonderful blue tiles that give the place its name. __ The centre of Sultanahmet Park is a good place to start your tour of ancient Istanbul. ___ When you leave, go back across the gardens, past your star ting point, to a much older building, Aya Sofya. ___ As you go, look up at the many domes and the six tall minarets of this famous example of Islamic architecture. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â ‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Good luck ]4[Captain: Hello everyone, this is the captain speaking, and I want to welcome you to Flight 18 for Seattle. Our flight time today is 2 hours and 14 minutes, and we will be flying at an average height of 8 839. 2 meters. The local time in Seattle is a quarter to twelve (11:45), and the current weather is sunny, but there is a chance of rain later in the day. We will be arriving at Gate 13 at Seattle airport. On behalf of Sky Airlines and the crew, I want to wish you an enjoyable stay in the Seattle area or at your final destination. Sit back and enjoy the flight.

Elementary Education Effectiveness

In the State of Mississippi there are 149 school districts; of those districts, one-hundred forty-five are accredited, three are on probation and four are under advisement. Mississippi consists of 437 elementary schools, 178 middle, 184 high schools and sixty combination elementary and secondary schools (MS Dept. of Education, 2005). In 2002, the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 was signed, mandating all Title I schools to be held accountable for the success of their students. Under this act; States must define minimum levels of improvement as measured by standardized tests chosen by the state.AYP targets must be set for overall achievement and for subgroups, economically disadvantaged students, limited English proficient (LEP) students and students with disabilities (2001). If a school fails to meet the above mentioned criteria a series of consequences follow. Once a school is labeled â€Å"in need of improvement†, the label remains until improvements are made and the require d achievement status is fulfilled for two consecutive years. If the school fails two years consecutively, the consequences become more severe. (Great Schools, 2006) Schools â€Å"in need of improvement† consequences:†¢ After two years of â€Å"in need of improvement† status, transfer options to a non-in need school within the district must be given to students. †¢ Three years of failed AYP the school must provide supplemental services such as tutoring as well as transfer options. †¢ Four consecutive years of failed AYP requires the school to implement one of the following: replace school staff, implement new curriculum, decrease authority of school level administration, appoint outside experts to advise the school, extended school year/day, restructure internal organization of school.This along with transfer and supplemental options. †¢ After five consecutive years of failing AYP the district must plan the restructuring of the school. These plans mu st include one of the following: reopen school as public charter school, replace all or most staff including principal, enter contract to have outside entity run school or arrange for the state to take over school operations. †¢ Six consecutive years of AYP failure requires implementing the previous years plan (Great Schools, online database). The delta region of Mississippi is considered the poorest areas in the state.It has been called the â€Å"Third World Country in America† (Mississippi Delta Report, 2001). The Mississippi Curriculum Test (MCT) is used to measure student mastery of skills and content for elementary grades two through eight, as outlined in the Mississippi Curriculum Frameworks (MS Dept. of Education, 2003). The Mississippi Board of Education identifies eight priorities necessary for improving student achievement; these priorities are: reading, early literacy, student achievement, leadership, safe/orderly schools, technology, and parent/community invo lvement (2003).Several strategies have been suggested to improve the performances of Mississippi schools; such as creating a more challenging curriculum, creating smaller classes, and increasing parental involvement (MS Dept. of Education, 2005). In 2002, â€Å"Reading First was passed into law by a bipartisan majority of Congress under the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001† (2002). Mississippi was given an eleven million dollar grant which would be used to: †¦help districts and schools improve student achievement in reading through the application of scientifically based reading research.Reading First will help States, districts and schools apply this research – and the proven instructional and assessment tools consistent with this research – to ensure that all children can read at grade level or above by the end of third grade (2002). Reading First had four priorities which included; 1) raising the caliber and quality of classroom instruction, 2) basing in struction on scientifically proven methods, 3) providing professional training for educators in reading instruction and 4) supplying substantial resources to support the unprecedented initiative.With the passing of this program several techniques have been implemented in the hopes of improving reading performances of Mississippi students. The following study, particularly the literature review will investigate existing strategies and the effectiveness of each. Several theories have been examined over the years in hopes of finding an effective strategy to improve student achievement. The teaching theory used as a basis for this study is the Measurement Theory, this theory represents teaching and achievement based on standardized tests and results.Statement of the Problem Mississippi consists of four-hundred and eighty-six thousand people living in poverty; ten percent of children belong to families that are not able to meet their needs (2005). Recent statistics show that those living in poverty are fifty-one percent African American and approximately forty-seven percent Caucasian (2005). Research has shown that the socioeconomic status of students influence the degree of success they will experience. (Donahue &Grigg, 2003) Mississippi has varying degrees of reading proficiency among school districts.In the 2003-2004 school year, six districts, consisting of one elementary school, five middle schools and one high school, were identified as â€Å"in need for improvement†, based on the reading and math proficiency of its students. For the purpose of this study, only schools reflecting a lack in reading proficiency will be discussed. The U. S. Secretary of Education, Margaret Spelling announced in a November 2005 press release, â€Å"Eighty percent of the fastest-growing jobs require at least some post secondary education.Yet far too many students are leaving high school unprepared for college†. Improved student achievement can provide students better preparation for college, thus closing the achievement gap. Low socioeconomic schools, although improving, are still behind the majority of middle-to-upper class schools in America (Donahue & Grigg, 2003). There are several factors to consider when looking at closing the achievement gap found in low socioeconomic schools.One factor is that â€Å"young, low-income and minority children are more likely to start school without having gained important school readiness skills, such as recognizing letters and counting† (2003). As Donahue and Grigg’s report showed, when students start school already behind others, they are likely to continue such patterns if not addressed early on. Existing studies demonstrate the problems researchers are having addressing literacy issues early on in a students academic career.Researches are trying to find appropriate strategies to combat the achievement gap with many variables which will be discussed further in detail, in the following study . Purpose of the Study The following is a detailed investigation into possible explanations of varying degrees of reading achievement found in Mississippi and what can be done to maintain a higher overall proficiency in reading among Mississippi students, while satisfying the requirements of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001.Many schools have chosen to implement a â€Å"school-wide approach† to closing the achievement gap; however, when dealing with schools consisting primarily of low-income students, there are other factors to consider when choosing a strategy. The proposed study will focus on improving reading skills in high-poverty schools found in Mississippi by comparing different techniques widely used and creating a more targeted strategy for low-income students. When deciding on an appropriate strategy for improving reading comprehension there are a few factors one must consider.The following questions will outline the factors to be researched in this study. Resear ch Questions 1. What impact does social economic status have on the achievement gaps found in the State of Mississippi? 2. What are the contributing factors found in Mississippi schools that are demonstrating low reading scores among economically disadvantaged students? 3. Are there high-poverty schools in Mississippi which demonstrate positive improvements in reading scores? What are the strategies used? 4. How does implementing Theory into Practice (TIP) encourage positive student achievement in disadvantaged schools?Hypothesis To affectively close low socioeconomic achievement gaps in reading, strong emphasis on establishing proficient reading ability should be made in elementary school. Nature of the Study The research conducted in this study will be an investigation of existing literature regarding techniques used in improving reading skills, exemplary schools demonstrating such techniques and finally, a suggested strategy to use when applying research to low socioeconomic scho ols with low reading proficiency found in Mississippi school districts.Significance of the Study The significance of this study is that by identifying factors contributing to the achievement gap found in low socioeconomic school districts, as well as investigating into existing programs that have had a positive influence on reading performance scores in other high-poverty schools is that, school administrators and policy makers will have a better basis in which to improve upon existing programs and interventions that would be more financially attainable than starting new programs.The high cost of starting new programs such as; creating new assessment strategies, providing more staff and researchers as well as other costly planning and implementing variables, often times are not practical for low-economic schools. While children of today are growing up in a world where data are being revealed at an alarming rate and knowledge is simply a click away, reading plays an increasingly cruc ial role in society (Topping & Paul, 1999).The ability to read is not only fundamental for understanding and mastery of every school subject students will encounter, but literacy also plays a critical and crucial role in students' social and economic lives (Snow, Bums, & Griffin, 1998). As a result, no other factor will have a greater impact on the success of students in Mississippi than their ability to read.With such an emphasis placed on the importance of reading achievement, educational leaders must clearly articulate the expectation that all students can become successful readers, while providing the most effective strategies and opportunities for students to succeed in reading and adopt lifelong reading practices. (Okpala, et al. , 2001) Definitions of Terms Action Team for Partnership- This partnership is also known as a School Improvement Team or a School Council.Although the ATP members oversee the school's partnership program, other teachers, parents, students, administrat ors, and community members also may lead family and community involvement activities (ATP website). Adequate Yearly Progress- AYP requires that schools hold the same high standards for all their students; regardless of racial or ethnic background, socioeconomic status and English proficiencyCore Academic Subjects- These subjects include: English, language arts and reading, arts, civics, government and history, mathematics and science, foreign languages, as well as, economics and geography. Elementary School- a nonprofit institution which includes, public school, day or residential school and elementary charter schools which State law mandated elementary education.Family Literacy Services – The services provided to participants on a voluntary basis that foster a positive change in families. These changes include, providing families with interactive activities between parents and child concerning literacy, teaching parents to take an active role in their children’s educa tion, teaching self-sufficiency by providing parental literacy training, and providing education to children which is age-appropriate and prepares them for school and life experiences.Highly Qualified (in reference to public elementary or secondary school teacher) – A highly qualified teacher will possess a State certification for teaching or holds a license to teach in a particular state due to passing the State exam and is employed in a teaching position after meeting all required testing, training and educational requirements satisfactory to the State, district and school regulations. Mentoring- A responsible elder who provides positive leadership and guidance to a child as a positive role model in that child’s life. A mentor mission is to help a child to one day become a responsible adult.Minority- a group of students which do not demonstrate the majority’s characteristics, such as socioeconomic status, ethnic background or other key characteristics. Other S taff- staff found within an institution such as personnel, guidance counselors, and administration and teachers aides. Limitations In her 2005 press release Secretary Spelling said, â€Å"we all hear a lot of stories about why schools are missing Adequate Yearly Progress, but we don’t hear much about how thousands of other schools are making it and closing the achievement gap†.This study is limited by location; its main concentration being primarily on Mississippi schools, programs and outcomes. The primary research method is investigating existing literature, as such; there is substantial literature on the failures of many schools trying to improve student achievement; however there is very little literature depicting success. One other limitation to consider is that this study focuses on reading proficiency; however; to get the most accurate depiction of a schools success is to consider all core academic subjects. Chapter TwoThe following literature focuses on how sc hools in the Mississippi School district and nationwide are implementing school improvement plans and closing the achievement gap. In School Improvement and Closing the Achievement Gap Report 2003-2004 the accountability of Mississippi Schools past and present is discussed (2004) and Craig Jerald, author of Dispelling the Myth discusses how nationwide high poverty, high minority schools have high achieving students (2001). Both reports will be discussed here. The researcher wanted to know how many high-poverty and high minority schools nationwide have high student performance.The study used the Education Trust Database to identify certain criteria. Over 4500 schools were analyzed. Each meeting the criteria set and performing well above the expectation (2001). Both papers discuss the achievement gap, more importantly they reported the areas of greatest improvement. The Achievement Gap Report (2004) focused on the Mississippi school districts. It gave an accountability report on those school districts that have been struggling, as well as providing a strategic outline to close the gap. Specific schools were used as models of for improving test scores.Dispelling the Myth (Jerald, 2001) focused on school districts nation wide. Although no reasons for poor school performance were given, the author did state that none of the schools were magnet schools. This report showed that most schools with high poverty, high minority students live in urban areas (2001). However, the more recently published Achievement Gap Report (2004) reported that some of the poorest schools are in rural areas. Dispelling the Myth (2001) looked at specific criteria for the study, whereas, the Achievement Gap Report (2004) did not.Both studies failed to look at specific schools and detail specific strategies used in improving the achievement gap. The Mississippi Achievement Gap Report (2004) plan made suggestions on how schools can improve, but a greater detail is needed to truly understand wh at each school did to improve scores. Model schools or a model program can be established based on greater research. Socioeconomic Influence Literature regarding reading programs was of most interest for this study. Several scientific journals addressed factors of low socioeconomic status and under achievement.The achievement gap found amongst low-income students was addressed in Education: The State We’re In (Donahue & Griggs, 2003). Substantial information was given on the obstacles facing high-poverty youth today. Reading proficiency among elementary school students of low-income families are at a disadvantage (2003). When studying low-income fourth graders, the author found that in 2003, across the nation, only fifteen percent are proficient in reading. The authors also demonstrated that the majority of low-income students read about three grades behind non-poor students (2003).Proficiency differences among races were briefly discussed; Similar disparities exist between w hite students and students of color; 39% of white 4th graders can read at the proficient level compared to only 12 % of African-American students and 14% of Latinos. Overall, about three in ten fourth graders can read proficiently, and this in itself is cause for concern. (2003) Parental Involvement, Instructional Expenditures, Family Socioeconomic Attributes, and Student Achievement (Okpala, et al, 2001).Parental involvement is a commonly discussed approach to establishing higher student achievement. A study done in North Carolina was based on three factors; (a) Instructional supplies expenditures will affect academic achievement positively; (b) the SES of students in a given school, measured by the percentage of students that participate in free/reduced-price lunch programs, will affect student achievement negatively; and (c) parental involvement that is measured by parental volunteer hours per 100 students will influence student achievement positively.These factors were beneficia l in understanding the SES influence on successful reading programs. These factors and the results of this particular study will be investigated further throughout this study. Implementing Change A very brief but informative piece, Evidence from Project Star About Class Size and Student Achievement (Folgers & Breda, 1989) addressed three specific questions to ask oneself when considering changing programs. The three questions were; 1) How effective will the change be? 2) How much will it cost and 3) what are the problems of implementation?(1989) All three of these questions were found to be valuable when assessing existing programs, as well as when considering the necessary factors when looking to improve upon them. The Gallup Poll (1989 Survey) was reported to have an overwhelming approval from parents when asked about reducing class size. The problem with this strategy is that â€Å"reducing class size substantially is very costly† (1989). A widely researched program invest igated during this study was the Accelerated Reader Program. One report (Melton, et. al. , 2004) demonstrated the uses and results of the AR program.By definition the Accelerated Readers program is â€Å"†¦a learning information system designed to heighten student interest in literature and to help teacher manage literature-based reading (McKnight, 1992). This study was particularly significant because it was conducted in two Jackson, Mississippi elementary schools. There has been extensive coverage of the AR program. A 2004 study compared the reading achievement growth of fifth graders following a year of participation in the AR program with other fifth graders who did not participate.The results demonstrated that students in the AR program actually scored significantly lower than non-participants. Although many studies show little to no benefits from the AR program, the program has provided a few guidelines; such guidelines include, 1) Engage students in large amount of read ing practice with authentic material 2) students should read at their own individual reading level, and 3) student incentives such as ribbons or extra recess improves the odds of a students success.By using computer technology, teachers can use the AR program to assess students reading level and invite and motivate students to read material they find interesting (Vollands, et al. , 1999). Students are given a choice of books suited to their particular reading level. Random multiple choice tests are given to test students’ comprehension of the material. In a National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (Dept. of Education) evaluation, AR programs and other computerized reading programs were reviewed (Chenowith, 2001).The lack of research on evaluated programs ability to produce long-term gains in reading achievement caused the National Institute to determine the AR programs did not meet standards (2001). Common complaints of the AR program include, 1) when the prog ram ended, participating students went back to reading less than before participating 2) the AR program limited the choice of books available to a student because certain books that were not accompanied by an AR test were not valid (Chenowith, 2001) and 3) AR encourages children to read for the wrong reasons, for example to win a prize (Carter, 1996).However, as Chenowith (2001) noted, many parents responded to the latter, that it did not matter why students read, as long as they were in fact reading. Topping and Paul (1999) found that with the proper educator training on the AR program, the odds of successful student achievement with the program will improve. Students already in at risk in reading before the AR program will gain positive results when AR is implemented (Vollands, Topping and Evans, 1999). â€Å"Many elementary schools have adopted programs which encourage authentic reading time and aid in the development of reading skills for life (Melton, et al., 2004). However, l ittle research has been conducted on individual, less costly programs (2004). When studying the effects of the AR program on African American students and white students in Mississippi, black students scored lower (2004). High School Statistics as a Basis for Increased Beginner Learning Although not the primary focus of this study, it is important to understand the future of elementary students by looking into current graduates predicaments.Over the last twenty years, there have been dramatic increases in high school promotion; as well as, in graduation requirements. Most recently, states and districts, such as Mississippi, have begun implementing graduation and end-of-course exams (Committee for Economic Development, 2000). Some critics have noted that the rise in standards and high-stakes tests will be unfair to students who have attended poorly resourced schools (Achieve, 2000). However, this problem has been met by offering extra help and supportive services to the students of t he disadvantaged schools (2001).One of the most common support methods has been to offer disadvantaged students more time; such as summer school, adding an extra year to their high school education and transition programs to ensure students can fulfill high school requirements (2001). Little progress has been made in developing a better curriculum and instructional support to aid in the acceleration of learning for disadvantaged high school (Balfanz, et al. , 2002). Some high schools have implemented a whole school reform by creating catch-up courses and district wide special prep courses (2002).These reforms have not been thoroughly evaluated because their infancy; using small, formative studies, thus little is known about the feasibility and rapidity of student acceleration in disadvantaged high schools. This study aims at taking the first step to in understanding the elementary school learning needs and providing appropriate teaching techniques for each schools situation; by repo rting on the initial results and impacts of the Talent Development High Schools (TDHS) ninth grade instructional program in reading and mathematics.The study involves several cities and multiple high-poverty, non-selective high schools within each city. Academic Models of Recognition Piney Woods School in Piney Woods, Mississippi has programs that should be viewed as national models. Although a private school, its strategies for success are practical and successful. The predominantly African American school is known for changing the lives of low-income students by having them â€Å"complete a rigid diet of reading, writing, math, science and foreign language† (Wooster, et al.2001). While requiring students work ten hours a week in order to teach them responsibility, Piney Woods School gives students a sense of unity and tough love. The programs implemented are; Writing Across the Curriculum, which trains freshman and sophomores’ in basic composition skills; Always Reac hing Upward, a peer tutoring program which pairs under achievers with high achievers and Save the Males, a tutoring, mentoring and special male focused groups that facilitate responsibility and self confidence.The results are phenomenal with a ninety five percentage rate of students going on to college after graduation and the other five percent going into military services. Analysis of existing achievement data in high-poverty high schools provides two conclusions. First, students who attend high-poverty high schools are typically performing below national norms and are dramatically short of the performance benchmarks employed to measure academic success.An analysis conducted by Education Week (1998) indicates, for example, that students entering high school in the majority of large cities are often found to be two or more years below grade level (Quality Counts ’98, 1998). In Philadelphia, for instance, seventeen percent of high school students attend one of twenty-two non- selective neighborhood schools (Neild & Balfanz, 2001); and approximately half of these students are reading below the fifth or sixth grade level. A quarter of these students are reading at the seventh or eighth grade level.Approximately one in four students attending a nonselective high school in Philadelphia read at grade level. In eight of the non-selective neighborhood schools in Philadelphia, a little over two thirds of first-time ninth graders are performing below the seventh grade level in both reading and mathematics (Neild & Balfanz, 2001). One important conclusion that can be drawn from this data is that in many non-selective urban schools students need accelerated learning opportunities.A second conclusion is that the current level of academic performance in disadvantaged high schools can lead to multiple negative consequences for students and society. It is too early to accurately gauge the impact of the high-stakes; standards based graduation tests and dropout rates of students entering high school with weak academic skills (Bishop & Mane, 2000; Hauser, 2001). Existing data from metropolitan cities such as Chicago (Roderick & Camburn, 1999) and Philadelphia, however, demonstrates a link between poor academic preparation and course failure; as well as the retention of many high-poverty students.Course failure and retention in the ninth grade has caused a high amount of high school drop outs. Forty-three percent of first-time freshmen in Philadelphia entering ninth grade with below seventh grade math and reading skills were not promoted to the tenth grade (Neild & Balfanz, 2001); in comparison to the eighteen percent of students entering ninth grade with math and reading skills above the seventh grade level. Student skills below grade level requirements result in retention, poor attendance, and course failure.First-time freshmen who were not promoted to the tenth grade had a dropout rate of nearly sixty percent when compared to a twelve percent drop out rate for students who were promoted (Neild, Stoner-Eby, & Furstenberg, 2001). The individual and social consequences of dropping out of high school are considerable. The Committee for Economic Development (2000) has documented the economic returns to advanced education. Non-promotion has become the norm in approximately two hundred-fifty to three hundred high schools, in thirty-five major cities in the United States (Balfanz & Legters, 2001).Sixty percent of the population in these public high schools is African American and Latino students in (2001). The United States Department of Education expresses the importance of raising graduation requirements and standards; therefore it is essential to the success of future high school students, that a means of improving reading proficiency is achieved. Contributing Factors to Student Achievement In 2001, the No Child Left Behind Act placed even stronger responsibility on states to raise student performance.As a result of these account ability standards, states must now administer standardized tests to â€Å"measure adequate yearly progress† of all students (2001). They face costly federal mandates and must submit comprehensive plans. The federal law also focuses on narrowing the achievement gap between races. It requires that states monitor the performance of racial and economic subgroups and undertake corrective action in failing schools (Wong, 2004). †¦states are implementing policies that provide incentives to attract and retain teachers and increase student performance.Incentives are helping states recruit new teachers into the work force, attract persons from outside education, retain teachers in the classroom and support accountability programs that focus on school-by-school efforts to boost student achievement (Cornett and Gaines, 2002). Researchers examining student performance consistently find that one of the most important influences on student achievement is socioeconomic status (SES) of s tudents. These findings give little comfort to educators in economically disadvantaged schools who are facing heavy pressure to improve performance and close the gap between minority and white students.Yet Verstegen and King (1998) claim that a growing body of research is using better databases and more sophisticated methodological strategies to provide evidence that school policies can make a positive difference in student outcomes. They also emphasize that resource patterns that optimize performance in one setting do not necessary work in others. Encouraged by this line of thinking, the researcher will investigate factors that may explain the differences in performances in schools that share a common socioeconomic context.Are there choices made by policymakers and administrators in economically disadvantaged schools that spark significant improvements in performance in these schools? In this study, the researcher will assume the significance of SES or â€Å"input† factors i n explaining achievement, and the researcher considers the impact of other factors over which schools have some control. Impact of Process Variables Although the statistical models will include measures for SES (percent of economically disadvantaged students and percent white students), the focus will be on process variables.The latter include those variables that school systems more or less control. The researcher categorizes these variables into three general areas: 1) school class size 2) school policies and 3) proven effective programs to increase student reading proficiency. One of the most controversial characteristics of schools is the amount of students per teacher (FTE). Production function research on the effects of school size has been inconclusive, and both sides have their advocates. Supporters of small schools contend that students get more attention, school governance is simpler, and teachers and administrators are more accessible to parents.Noguera (2002) states that in high schools where the majority of low-income students of color are achieving at high levels the one common characteristic is the small size of the schools. Lee and Burkam found that students are less likely to drop out of schools with fewer than 1,500 students (2003). However, others argue that large schools are able to offer students a wider range of educational offerings and services (â€Å"Still Stumped,† 2002). Recent research indicates that the effects of school size may depend on the SES of students.Findings show consistently that the relationship between achievement and socioeconomic status was substantially weaker in smaller schools than larger schools, that is, students from impoverished communities are much more likely to benefit from smaller schools. On the other hand, a positive relationship exists between larger schools and the output measures of affluent students (Lee and Smith, 1996; Howley and Bickel, 1999). Because this study will examine the performance of economically disadvantaged students, the researcher expects to find a negative relationship between school size and achievement scores.That is, the larger the school, the less likely students are to achieve on standardized tests. The relationship between class size and positive student achievement is another relationship that has been closely studied. In 2000, Congress allocated $1. 3 billion for class size reduction as a provision of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) (Johnson, 2002). Most of the studies that examine the effect of class size on student performance have focused on primary schools.One of the largest and most scientifically rigorous experiments was the 1985, Tennessee’s Student Achievement Ratio (STAR) study. The STAR project provides compelling evidence that smaller classes can improve student achievement, especially in primary schools, which could have lasting effects (1985). The four year longitudinal study focused on classes in Tennessee and consisted of grades kindergarten through third. Classes of thirteen to seventeen students were compared to classes of twenty-two to twenty-six students; of the total classes, some had just one teacher and some had a teacher and aid.Phase one included over three hundred classes and a total of 6500 students (1985). The result after four years was positive support for the reduction of classroom sizes which proved to have positive effects on student achievement. Some critics have pointed out the limitations of project STAR (Vinson, 2002). A couple of limitations listed in a report by Tony Vinson in 2002 were: 1) limiting sample of certain cultural groups 2) schools volunteered to participate in the study, suggesting they had motivation to use innovative teaching practices.In 1996, Mostellar, a statistician, reported; â€Å"the Tennessee Class Size study demonstrates convincingly that student achievement is better in small K-3 classes and the effect continues later in regular-sized classes (1996). In a follow-up study, Nye, Hedges and Kontantopoulos (1999) found that students of smaller class size continued showing significant advantages over students of regular-sized classes, throughout school, to graduation. These students demonstrated higher grades, took more challenging classes, had better graduation rates and were more likely to go on to college (Vinson, 2002).Wisconsin’s Student Achievement Guarantee in Education (Vinson, 2002), began in the 1996-1997 school year and was expanded in 1998-1999 and again in 2000-2001 (Wisconsin Dept. of Public Instruction). The objective of the program is to improve student achievement through the implementation of four school improvement strategies: class sizes no more than 15:1 in grades K-3; increased collaboration between schools and their communities; implementation of a rigorous curriculum focusing on academic achievement; and improving professional development and staff evaluation practices.Schools in SAGE ha ve renewable 5-year contracts with the state and get state aid equal to $2,000 for each low-income child in the grades served by the program. During 2005-06 495 schools participated in SAGE (up from 30 when the program began). Just over 93,000 K-3 pupils were served. State funding, which was $4. 5 M in 96-97 will be $98. 6 M in 2006-07. A few districts are also benefiting from a state categorical aid program created in 1999 to help schools pay debt service on the cost of new classrooms built to accommodate SAGE (DPI).The SAGE program in partnership with John Hopkins University of Baltimore Maryland, invites, states or districts to become members in improving the student achievement in the potential members’ schools. Through the National Network of Partnership Schools, SAGE and others in the network will work states, districts and other educational organization members to form an Action Team for Partnership plan. Members follow the Six Types of Involvement format (NNPS online) . Five years of NNPS surveys and result focused studies on member schools’ progress has been reported (2005).NNPS uses research results to develop practical tools, materials, and guidelines for schools and school districts. Presently, over 1000 schools, 100 districts, and 17 state departments of education are working with NNPS to use research-based approaches to establish and strengthen their programs of school, family, and community partnerships (2005). It is suggested that incorporating the following elements create better programs and outreaching to parents of the students and increased parental involvement (2005). 1. Leadership 2. Teamwork 3.Action plans 4. Implementation of plans 5. Funding 6. Collegial support 7. Evaluation 8. Networking Results from longitudinal studies showed that â€Å" a review of literature on family involvement with students on reading, indicated that, across the grades, subject specific interventions to involve families in reading and related la nguage arts, positively affected students’ reading skills and scores (Sheldon & Epstein, 2005b). The original SAGE pilot program research involved participants of which fifty percent were below the poverty level (Vinson, 2002).Participating classes were reduced from average size to fifteen students per teacher. An evaluation by Molinar, Smith and Zahorik (1999) revealed that the first grade SAGE students demonstrated higher achievement when compared to nonparticipating schools in both language arts and math. Second and third graders were reported to follow the same pattern. The third study to be reviewed is the Prime Time (1984) project in Indiana. This was originally planned to be a two year project started in 1984 but it had such promising results that by 1988 all k-3 classes were reduced in Indiana.The average FTE was eighteen. In 1989, McGivern, Gilman and Tillitski compared samples of achievement levels of second graders from six districts with reduced class sizes and th ree districts that were not reduced and found significantly larger gains in reading and math among students of smaller classes. As with project STAR, SAGE has suffered criticism. Limitations mentioned were that â€Å"students were not assigned to experimental control groups on a random basis†, and that school policies were changed and implemented during the course of the study (Vinson, 2002).A widely criticized factor was the use of teacher incentives to motivate small classroom achievement. As mentioned previously, opinions on class size vary. Over the years several researchers have analyzed studies and evaluated the effectiveness of each. Glass and Smith (1979) found after analyzing seventy-seven empirical studies on class size versus student achievement, that small classes were associated with higher achievement at all grade levels.For greatest results in student achievement, students should attend small classes for over one-hundred hours (1979), with under twenty students . Small classes are beneficial because of 1) better student reaction 2) teacher morale and 3) quality of the teaching environment (Vinson, 2002). In a review of one-hundred relevant studies, small classes had been the most beneficial, during kindergarten and third grade, but only if teachers change their methods and procedures (Robinson and Wittebols, 1986).Slavin’s (1990) research of empirical studies, were chosen for analysis based on a three part criteria; 1) class size had been reduced for at least one year 2) twenty students were compared to substantially larger class sizes and 3) students in both class sizes were comparable (1990). Contrary to previously mentioned researchers, Slavin believed that smaller class size had minimal positive effects on students and those effects did not continue once students were returned to normal, larger classes (1990).A highly published researcher, Eric Hanushek has voiced his opposition to small classes benefiting student achievement si nce the mid-1980s. In all his reviews of class size studies, he’s always concluded that; â€Å"The evidence about improvements in student achievement that can be attributed to smaller classes turns out to be meager and unconvincing (Vinson, 2002)†. Johnson (2000), citing a study at the Heritage Foundation examining National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) reading data, asserted that the difference in reading assessment scores between students in small classes and students in large classes was insignificant.He criticized class size reduction programs citing California as example of how such programs exacerbate the problem of lack of qualified teachers to fill classrooms. His claim of the lack of association between class size and performance was consistent with Hanushek’s conclusions (1999). Studies of the effects of class size in secondary schools are much more rare and largely equivocal (Deutsch 2003; Grissmer 1999). Many of those who advocate for sma ller class sizes at the secondary level argue that small classes positively impact the school environment, thus, improving performance indirectly.In her review of the literature of class size and secondary schools, Deutsch (2003) highlights studies that conclude small classes stimulate student engagement, allow more innovative instructional strategies, increase teacher-student interactions, reduce the amount of time teachers devote to discipline, improve teacher morale, and minimize feelings of isolation and alienation in adolescence that can come from anonymity. Another important process variable the researcher will investigate is the effects of school policy on student achievement.An influential policy becoming common in schools is that of parental support and teacher incentives. As with the other factors in this model, conclusions about the effects of both on student performance has been mixed, but recent studies seem to point to more positive correlations, particularly teacher e xperience (Hedges, Lane, and Greenwald 1994). Mississippi’s Department of Education’s Schools and Parents Partnering for Student Success is a brochure given to the parents of Mississippi public school students to educate them on what level of proficiency their child should be on in an attempt to form a relationship between school and home.Strategies for improving student achievement according to Mississippi’s School Improvement and Closing the Achievement Gap Report 2003-2004 include: †¢ Strong parental involvement †¢ Community and church support †¢ Various reform models aligned to state curriculum †¢ Dedicated teachers †¢ Structured teaching †¢ Thinking maps †¢ Stable staff †¢ Comprehensive systems to monitor student progress †¢ Aligned curriculum, assessment, and instruction †¢ Peer coaches†¢ Instructional time that is increased (2004) As the reader will notice, the majority of these strategies incorporate relationships between the school and outside sources for example parental and community involvement. These strategies were created by schools in Mississippi demonstrating high student achievement. Finally, the researcher will also examine the effects of global resources, that is, per pupil expenditure (PPE), on the impact of performance.In their review of production function research, Verstegen and King cite Hedges, Laine, and Greenwald’s assertion (1994) that â€Å"Global resource variables such as PPE, show positive, strong, and consistent relations with achievement† (1995, 57-58). However, other studies fail to yield significant results (Chubb and Moe 1990; Okpala 2002). Tajalli, in his examination of the wealth equalization or â€Å"Robin Hood† program in Texas, found that the transfer of nearly $3. 4 billion of dollars to poor school districts did not have a significant impact on the improvement of performance in these districts (Tajalli, 2003).It may be t hat expenditures in general have an indirect effect that is not apparent when using PPE as a direct measure. In his study of school spending Wenglinsky (1997) develops a â€Å"path† in which he concludes a school’s economic resources are associated with academic achievement. He posits that per-pupil expenditures on instruction and central office administration are positively related to class size, i. e. , more spending on smaller classes. Smaller teacher/student ratios contribute to a cohesive school environment, which enhances achievement. Chapter ThreeDescription of Methodology This study is a comparative analysis of eight Mississippi elementary schools from seven school districts; two K-2, two K-3 and four K-5. Factors analyzed were the students to teacher ratio (FTE), socioeconomic status (SES), and student ethnicity, and comparison MCT scores. At first a total of twenty schools were randomly chosen from different districts. The researcher then chose eight schools of conflicting SES percentages. It is a comparative study using the case analysis method; since it attempts to compare school factors influencing student performance.Using the Mississippi Academic Excellence Indicator System (AEIS) data, the researcher will examine these variables to determine the elements that can impact success or failure of public school campuses. The measure of performance is the standardized test given in 2005 to students in Mississippi public schools, the MCT. The researcher focused the study on Mississippi elementary schools that are predominantly populated by students who come from economically disadvantaged backgrounds. The socioeconomic status was based on the percentage of students eligible for free or reduced-price lunches.The teaching theory used as a basis for this study is the Measurement Theory, this theory represents teaching and achievement based on standardized tests and results. Validity and Reliability The MCT scores are provided by the Mississi ppi Department of Education, and the demographics of each school were provided by the NCES found on the greatschools. com database. Twenty schools were chosen by random; then eight were chosen for analysis based on conflicting SES factors in order to get realistic insight as to the influence of student success factors on each school size.This study has limitations due to the fact that it is based on MCT scores which can be deceiving. These tests have been criticized by researchers because they do not portray a student’s overall understanding of a subject and do not allow for different learning abilities and styles. It is because of this limitation that further study should be conducted on the achievement levels of students based on different approaches to classroom learning. Sample and Population Three samples were used for this study. Sample one consisted of two schools serving grades K-2; each school was from a different district.Sample two consisted of two schools which se rved K-3 and were from two separate districts. Finally, the third sample consisted of four K-5 schools, from two different districts. Overall, seven districts and eight schools of different sizes in the state of Mississippi were compared. The study specifically seeks to identify variables in low performing schools that could hinder them from improving performance. In order to provide an accurate study, the researcher took samples from different sized schools with different student demographics.Implementation Research was conducted by recording data for each school for a side-by-side comparison of different factors (see Appendix). All factors were found through greatschools. com, which summarizes each school’s characteristics for easy research. All school samples were then analyzed for the reading achievement average. Based on the average, the researcher then examined the achievement factors; determining whether there was a trend between any of the achievement factors and the MCT results of the chosen school samples.Factors compared during analysis were; socioeconomic status (SES), student-per-teacher ratios (FTE), and the percentage of nonwhite students. The MCT scores for 2005 were used as an indicator of overall reading proficiency of the chosen school. In order to determine whether a variable was a consistent influence on the MCT scores, three consecutive years of MCT scores from 2003-2005 were analyzed. The overall study aimed to discover a consistent pattern between a variable, such as SES or FTE, and the level of reading proficiency.Data Analysis Two of the three samples were consistent with the researcher’s hypothesis that SES is a strong influence on reading proficiency. Sample 1 however was uncharacteristic of the other two. In Sample 1, both schools demonstrated above the state average in MCT reading scores, however, the school with the highest SES percentage actually did better. This is uncharacteristic since Sample 2 and Sample 3 demo nstrated a trend in high SES and low MCT scores for three consecutive years.As discussed in chapter two, the literature review, the influence of class size on student achievement has been an on going debate among researchers. For this reason, the researcher included student-per-teacher ratios as a sample variable. The researcher had expected to see some evidence of FTE influence reflected in the MCT scores; however, that was not the case. According to the data collected, the FTE of all three samples ranged between fifteen and seventeen, with the state average being fifteen. The results demonstrated no reoccurring trend between FTE and MCT scores.Sample 1 schools demonstrated varying above average MCT scores and the same FTE of seventeen. In Sample 2, School 1A demonstrated a below average MCT score with a FTE of fifteen; however, 2B had higher test scores and a higher FTE. In Sample 3, all but one of the schools had a FTE of Seventeen, 3B demonstrated a FTE of fifteen and a below av erage MCT score. School 4B had below average MCT scores but a FTE of seventeen, like the remaining two schools with higher MCT scores. Between all three samples, there was no reoccurring trend between MCT scores and FTE.The researcher had expected student ethnicity to play a large role in student achievement levels, however based on this studies samples, there was little proof that such a trend existed. As demonstrated in Appendix A through C, schools demonstrating low achievement scores varied in the percentage of nonwhite students. The same variations were found in schools with high achievement scores. Overall, the only achievement factor that demonstrated a trend was the socioeconomic status factor. SES as a factor of achievement was present in Samples 2 and 3, but seemed irrelevant in Sample 1.Based on the results and the uncharacteristic trends found in Sample 1, the researcher feels that the quality of the curriculum and teaching strategies had an influence of the high achieve ment levels found in Sample 1. The researcher feels strongly that SES is an influential factor on the reading achievement of elementary students in Mississippi. It must be noted however, the influence of SES can be minimized with the proper curriculum and learning strategies. MCT scores give educators insight into the overall achievement levels of students, and should be used as an indicator of what type of teaching strategy should be used.There are numerous ways to improve student achievement. Educators and school administrators must be aware of the learning abilities and potentials of students and gear curriculum and teaching strategies towards the needs of the students. References Achieve (2001). 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